Everything we state has a source behind it.
The chemistry and microbiology our systems rely on are not our claims — they are findings established in the peer-reviewed literature and in official guidance. Every source below has been verified against the primary record, with complete citation details and access links.
Peer-reviewed studies
09-
(1948). The Behavior of Chlorine as a Water Disinfectant. Journal AWWA, 40(10), 1051–1061.
The foundational study describing the HOCl ⇌ OCl⁻ equilibrium in water and how pH shifts it. Its dissociation constant (pKa ≈ 7.5) is what makes it possible to calculate how much of a free-chlorine residual is actually in the active form.
Open source ↗ DOI 10.1002/j.1551-8833.1948.tb15055.x
Cited in: What is that pool 'chlorine smell' actually a sign of? How does electrochemical activation (ECA) work? What is hypochlorous acid, and why is it more effective than chlorine?
-
(1988). Inactivation of Biofilm Bacteria. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 54(10), 2492–2499.
Surface-attached biofilm bacteria proved 150 to more than 3,000 times more resistant to hypochlorous acid than unattached cells. The study also showed that transport of disinfectant into the biofilm is the rate-limiting factor — which is why raising the chlorine dose does not raise efficiency.
Open source ↗ DOI 10.1128/aem.54.10.2492-2499.1988 PMID 2849380
Cited in: Why biofilm resists chlorine — and why raising the dose does not help How is Legionella risk controlled in water lines? What is hypochlorous acid, and why is it more effective than chlorine?
-
(1988). Factors Promoting Survival of Bacteria in Chlorinated Water Supplies. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 54(3), 649–654.
Identifies what lets bacteria survive chlorination in distribution systems — surface attachment, shelter inside particles, and adaptation from prior exposure. It shows that a measured free-chlorine residual alone does not guarantee microbiological safety.
Open source ↗ DOI 10.1128/aem.54.3.649-654.1988 PMID 3288119
Cited in: Why biofilm resists chlorine — and why raising the dose does not help How is Legionella risk controlled in water lines?
-
(2000). Roles of Oxidation–Reduction Potential in Electrolyzed Oxidizing and Chemically Modified Water for the Inactivation of Food-Related Pathogens. Journal of Food Protection, 63(1), 19–24.
Separates out the variables behind electrolyzed oxidizing water’s efficacy and shows oxidation–reduction potential (ORP) — more than pH or residual chlorine — governs inactivation. This is the basis for monitoring redox potential as an independent process parameter.
Open source ↗ PMID 10643764
-
(2016). Electrolyzed Water as a Novel Sanitizer in the Food Industry: Current Trends and Future Perspectives. Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety, 15(3), 471–490.
A peer-reviewed review of electrolyzed water across the food industry. It concludes that the only chemical input is salt, that generation can happen at the point of use, and that the method offers cost and environmental advantages over conventional cleaning systems.
Open source ↗ DOI 10.1111/1541-4337.12200 PMID 33401818
Cited in: On-site generation or bulk chemicals? An operating decision How does electrochemical activation (ECA) work?
-
(2020). Hypochlorous Acid: A Review. Journal of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, 78(9), 1461–1466.
A medical review documenting that hypochlorous acid is produced naturally by neutrophils and is non-irritating to human tissue at use concentrations, while retaining broad-spectrum antimicrobial activity.
Open source ↗ DOI 10.1016/j.joms.2020.06.029 PMID 32653307
Cited in: What is hypochlorous acid, and why is it more effective than chlorine?
-
(2011). Perchlorate, Bromate, and Chlorate in Hypochlorite Solutions: Guidelines for Utilities. Journal AWWA, 103(6), 71–83.
Documents that oxyhalide species — chlorate, bromate and perchlorate — form in stored sodium hypochlorite after manufacture, at rates set by temperature, ionic strength, hypochlorite concentration and transition metals. Direct evidence that bulk chemical loses strength while its by-product load rises on the shelf.
Open source ↗ DOI 10.1002/j.1551-8833.2011.tb11474.x
Cited in: On-site generation or bulk chemicals? An operating decision
-
(2007). Occurrence, Genotoxicity, and Carcinogenicity of Regulated and Emerging Disinfection By-Products in Drinking Water: A Review and Roadmap for Research. Mutation Research — Reviews in Mutation Research, 636(1–3), 178–242.
The reference review of drinking-water disinfection by-products. It establishes that by-product formation tracks the disinfectant’s dose and its contact time with organic matter — which is why placing the right dose at the right point is a water-quality question, not just an efficiency one.
Open source ↗ DOI 10.1016/j.mrrev.2007.09.001 PMID 17980649
Cited in: On-site generation or bulk chemicals? An operating decision What is that pool 'chlorine smell' actually a sign of?
-
(2014). Virucidal Effect of Acidic Electrolyzed Water and Neutral Electrolyzed Water on Avian Influenza Viruses. Archives of Virology, 159(3), 405–412.
Neutral electrolyzed water containing ≥43 ppm free available chlorine irreversibly reduced the titre of highly pathogenic H5N1 and low-pathogenic H9N2 avian influenza virus by more than 5 log within 1 minute; the minimum free chlorine for a virucidal effect was estimated at about 40 ppm.
Open source ↗ DOI 10.1007/s00705-013-1840-2 PMID 24026292
Official guidance
02-
(2003). LT1ESWTR Disinfection Profiling and Benchmarking Technical Guidance Manual — Appendix B: CT Tables. EPA Office of Water, EPA 816-R-03-004.
The official CT (concentration × contact time) tables for free chlorine. At 10 °C and 1.0 mg/L, 3-log Giardia inactivation requires 79 mg·min/L at pH 6, 162 at pH 8 and 234 at pH 9 — the required dose doubles to triples on pH alone.
Cited in: Why biofilm resists chlorine — and why raising the dose does not help How is Legionella risk controlled in water lines? What is that pool 'chlorine smell' actually a sign of? What is hypochlorous acid, and why is it more effective than chlorine?
-
(2007). Legionella and the Prevention of Legionellosis. WHO, Geneva.
The WHO guidance establishing that Legionella risk is managed through a building-wide water safety plan rather than one-off sampling. It names temperature control, elimination of dead legs and a continuous disinfectant residual as the core measures.
Cited in: Why biofilm resists chlorine — and why raising the dose does not help How is Legionella risk controlled in water lines?
Let’s discuss which of these findings apply to your facility.
A technical assessment based on your water source, your line and your target parameters.